Mental Models

A mental model in UX (user experience) design is the way users think something works, based on past experiences, habits, or expectations. It’s their internal blueprint for interacting with a product. When the design matches that mental model, users navigate easily. However, when it doesn’t, confusion and frustration follow.

Good UX aligns with users’ mental models. For example, people expect a shopping cart icon to hold selected items they’ll purchase at some point soon. Changing that pattern, not matter how “innovative” or “cool” that may seem, will create unnecessary friction for most users.

Explore one aspect of designing for users’ mental models in our article Embrace the Mental Models of Users by Implementing Tabs.

Mental models matter in user experience design because they shape how users interpret, navigate, and interact with digital products. When a design aligns with a user’s mental model, they feel in control, confident, and successful. However, when there’s a mismatch, confusion sets in, leading to errors, drop-offs, or frustration.

Designers who understand mental models can create intuitive interfaces that “just make sense.” This reduces learning curves and improves usability. They know not to design based on how they think something works but rather to design based on how their users believe it should work. Research is the key to uncovering their expectations, before testing to validate alignment.

Explore the vast realm of user research to find vital insights and tips on how to start off any design project properly.

To identify mismatches between user mental models and your design, observe where users hesitate, make mistakes, or ask, “What now?” These moments reveal gaps between what users expect and what the interface actually does. Think-aloud testing, usability studies, and journey mapping are powerful tools to spot those disconnects.

For example, if users click a logo expecting to return to the homepage, only to find that it doesn’t, they’re operating on a mental model your design fails to support.

Tip: Ask users to explain what they think will happen before they act. Compare their expectations to what your product actually delivers. This reveals key design mismatches fast.

For navigation structures like menus, users’ success or failure in reaching a goal can be tracked in detail using tree testing. Take our course on quantitative UX research to discover more.

Cultural and generational differences shape mental models by influencing what users expect, value, and understand. For instance, older users may associate saving files with a floppy disk icon; many of them will recall using floppies in 20th-century computers. However, younger users—many of whom have never seen let alone used a floppy disk—might not recognize its meaning. Likewise, users from different cultures may interpret gestures, colors, or navigation patterns differently.

These variations can cause confusion if a design assumes a “universal” model. To create inclusive UX, designers must research how diverse user groups perceive and interact with digital products.

Tip: Test your design with a variety of users. Look for patterns across age groups and cultural backgrounds to spot mismatched assumptions early.

Take a fresh look at assumptions to see what problems they can cause in design and how to work well with them.

To design interfaces that match user mental models, start by understanding how your users expect things to work. Use interviews, task analyses, and usability tests to uncover their assumptions. Then, structure your interface to align with those expectations, especially around layout, labels, navigation, and feedback.

For example, if users expect a magnifying glass icon to mean “search,” which they should, using anything else adds friction, even if it might make sense to your design team (for example, a microscope). When your design behaves the way users think it should, you create intuitive, frustration-free experiences and nobody will dislike it for “trying to be smart.”

Tip: Match mental models, don’t fight them. Use familiar design patterns unless you have a strong, tested reason to introduce something new.

Empower your design team to provide users with what they expect and delight them in the process by leveraging user interviews optimally.

To create onboarding experiences that shape better mental models, design clear, guided introductions that show users how and why things work the way they do. Don’t overload new users with features—help them form accurate expectations through simple tasks, tooltips, and contextual cues.

Onboarding should mirror real workflows so users build the right mental connections. For example, showing how to post a message in a chat app reinforces where conversations live and how threads behave; users can map out an accurate picture of the wider process.

Tip: Use progressive disclosure. Reveal complexity as users need it, not all at once, so they develop mental models step by step, with confidence.

Find out how to use progressive disclosure to your advantage and keep more users on board as they learn things when they’re ready to.

Familiar UI patterns support existing mental models by matching what users already know, making interactions faster and more intuitive. When users see a trash can icon, they expect to delete something. Despite a few hiccups with hamburger menus, a hamburger icon generally signals navigation. These patterns reduce the learning curve and help users feel confident from the first click.

By reusing proven conventions, designers tap into mental shortcuts users have formed over time. This speeds up decision-making and minimizes frustration.

Tip: Stick with widely recognized patterns unless you have a clear, tested reason to break them. Innovation is great—but not at the cost of usability.

Understand how UI design patterns help more users enjoy more easy-to-use design solutions, from this brief video:

To simplify complex tasks, design flows that match how users think the task works—not how the system operates. Mental models guide users’ expectations. When your UX design follows those expectations, even complex actions feel easy.

Break big tasks into smaller, familiar steps. Use labels, icons, and layouts that mirror users’ mental blueprints. For example, if someone books a flight, they expect to select dates, destinations, and passengers using features like date pickers—so match that mental model in your UI.

Tip: Observe real users performing the task offline or in competitor tools. Use those insights to align your flow with their natural process.

Stay a step or two ahead of users when you know How to Use Mental Models in UX Design.

When users have no prior mental model of your product, your design must build one from scratch—clearly, gently, and step by step. Start with intuitive onboarding that explains core concepts through action, not just instruction. Use visual cues, tooltips, and guided interactions to help users form accurate expectations.

Prioritize clarity and leave out jargon. Structure tasks in a logical sequence, and reinforce correct use with immediate feedback. When users take the right action, confirm it clearly; this helps shape their understanding.

Tip: Watch where first-time users struggle. Use that insight to improve affordances and guide users toward the mental model your product needs them to adopt.

Open the door wider for ideas to get through by understanding how affordances work.

Full Clarity. (n.d.). Mental models in UX design: Understanding user expectations. Full Clarity.

This article explores the concept of mental models and their critical role in UX design. It highlights how users' expectations, shaped by their experiences, influence their interaction with digital products. The piece underscores the importance of aligning design with these mental models to create intuitive and user-friendly interfaces. It also discusses challenges in identifying users' mental models and offers strategies for testing and validating design decisions to ensure they meet user expectations.

Hunt, W. (2023, May 2). 10 examples of mental models in UX design. Deliverable UX.

Hunt presents ten practical examples of mental models in UX design, illustrating how users' expectations influence their interaction with interfaces. The article discusses common UI elements, such as the hamburger menu and back/forward buttons, and how they align with users' mental models to facilitate intuitive navigation. By understanding these models, designers can create more user-friendly designs that meet users' expectations and improve overall usability.

Hudson, W. (n.d.). Mental models, metaphor, and design. Syntagm.

Hudson explores the relationship between mental models, metaphors, and design, highlighting how metaphors can help users understand complex systems by relating them to familiar concepts. The article discusses the role of mental models in user interaction and how designers can leverage metaphors to align interfaces with users' expectations. By understanding and designing for users' mental models, designers can create more intuitive and effective user experiences.

Young, I. (2008). Mental Models: Aligning Design Strategy with Human Behavior. Rosenfeld Media.

Indi Young's seminal work introduces a methodology for understanding users' thought processes to inform design decisions. By constructing mental models, designers can align their strategies with actual user behaviors and needs. The book provides step-by-step guidance on conducting user research, analyzing data, and creating mental model diagrams. It's a valuable resource for UX professionals seeking to ground their designs in a deep understanding of user motivations and tasks.

Norman, D. A. (2013). The Design of Everyday Things (Revised and expanded ed.). Basic Books.

Don Norman's classic text explores the psychology behind how users interact with products, emphasizing the importance of aligning design with users' mental models. He introduces concepts like affordances and signifiers, which help designers create intuitive interfaces that match user expectations. This book is foundational for understanding the principles of user-centered design and the role of mental models in creating effective user experiences.